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<title>Cryptomnesia</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Cryptomnesia</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the album by El Grupo Nuevo de Omar Rodriguez-Lopez, see <a href="Cryptomnesia_(album)" title="Cryptomnesia (album)">Cryptomnesia (album)</a>.</div>

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<p><b>Cryptomnesia</b> occurs when a forgotten <a href="Memory" title="Memory">memory</a> returns without it being recognized as such by the subject, who believes it is something new and original. It is a <a href="Memory_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="Memory bias">memory bias</a> whereby a person may falsely recall generating a thought, an idea, a tune, a name, or a joke;<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> they are not deliberately engaging in <a href="Plagiarism" title="Plagiarism">plagiarism</a>, but are experiencing a memory as if it were a new inspiration.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_use">Early use</h2></div>

<p>Cryptomnesia was first documented in 1874, involving the medium <a href="Stainton_Moses" class="mw-redirect" title="Stainton Moses">Stainton Moses</a>, who during a <a href="S%C3%A9ance" title="Séance">séance</a> believed himself to be in spiritual contact with two brothers from India who had recently been killed. Despite the apparent communication, he was unable to ascertain any details which had not already been given in newspaper coverage of the story the week before. Researchers concluded that Moses had read the story but forgotten that he had read it, instead mistaking the partial memory for a message from the spirit world.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The word was first used by the psychiatrist <a href="Th%C3%A9odore_Flournoy" title="Théodore Flournoy">Théodore Flournoy</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in reference to the case of medium <a href="H%C3%A9l%C3%A8ne_Smith" title="Hélène Smith">Hélène Smith</a> (Catherine-Élise Müller) to suggest the high incidence in psychism of "latent memories on the part of the medium that come out, sometimes greatly disfigured by a subliminal work of imagination or reasoning, as so often happens in our ordinary dreams."

</p><p><a href="Carl_Gustav_Jung" class="mw-redirect" title="Carl Gustav Jung">Carl Gustav Jung</a> treated the subject in his thesis "On the Psychology and Pathology of So-Called Occult Phenomena" (1902)<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in an article, "Cryptomnesia" (1905),<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> suggested the phenomenon in <a href="Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a>'s <i><a href="Thus_Spoke_Zarathustra" title="Thus Spoke Zarathustra">Thus Spoke Zarathustra</a></i>. The idea was studied or mentioned by Géza Dukes, Sándor Ferenczi and Wilhelm Stekel as well as by Sigmund Freud in speaking of the originality of his inventions.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Jacques_Lacan" title="Jacques Lacan">Jacques Lacan</a> illustrated the adaptability of the concept in his formulation of the ego ideal (the "ego" as Other<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) in refashioning the "case" of Margarite Pantaine (<a href="Case_of_Aim%C3%A9e" title="Case of Aimée">Case of Aimée</a>). Her experiences of self-"misrecognition" provided a structure for Lacan's key subsequent theories of <a href="The_Symbolic" title="The Symbolic">The Symbolic</a> and the <a href="Mirror_stage" title="Mirror stage">mirror stage</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The word <i>cryptomnesia</i> is a compound of Greek <i>cryptos</i> (hidden, concealed, secret) and <i>mnesia</i> (memory).

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Experimental_research">Experimental research</h2></div>

<p>In the first empirical study of cryptomnesia, people in a group took turns generating category examples (e.g., kinds of birds: parrot, canary, etc.). They were later asked to create new exemplars in the same categories that were not previously produced, and also to recall which words they had personally generated. People inadvertently plagiarized about 3–9% of the time either by regenerating another person's thought or falsely recalling someone's thought as their own.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar effects have been replicated using other tasks such as word search puzzles<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in brainstorming sessions.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes">Causes</h2></div>

<p>Cryptomnesia is more likely to occur when the ability to properly monitor sources is impaired. For example, people are more likely to falsely claim ideas as their own when they were under high cognitive load at the time they first considered the idea.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cryptomnesia increases when people are away from the original source of the idea, and decreases when participants are specifically instructed to pay attention to the origin of their ideas. False claims are also more prevalent for ideas originally suggested by persons of the same sex, presumably because the perceptual similarity of the self to a same-sex person exacerbates source confusion. In other studies it has been found that the timing of the idea is also important: if another person produces an idea immediately before the self produces an idea, the other's idea is more likely to be claimed as one's own, ostensibly because the person is too busy preparing for their own turn to properly monitor source information.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Value">Value</h2></div>

<p>As explained by <a href="Carl_Jung" title="Carl Jung">Carl Jung</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

in <i><a href="Man_and_His_Symbols" title="Man and His Symbols">Man and His Symbols</a>,</i> "An author may be writing steadily to a preconceived plan, working out an argument or developing the line of a story, when he suddenly runs off at a tangent. Perhaps a fresh idea has occurred to him, or a different image, or a whole new sub-plot. If you ask him what prompted the digression, he will not be able to tell you. He may not even have noticed the change, though he has now produced material that is entirely fresh and apparently unknown to him before. Yet it can sometimes be shown convincingly that what he has written bears a striking similarity to the work of another author — a work that he believes he has never seen."

</p><p><a href="Jorge_Luis_Borges" title="Jorge Luis Borges">Jorge Luis Borges</a>'s story, "<a href="Pierre_Menard%2C_Author_of_the_Quixote" title="Pierre Menard, Author of the Quixote">Pierre Menard, Author of the Quixote</a>," is a meta-fictive enactment of cryptomnesia. This work is written in the form of a review or literary critical piece about (the nonexistent) Pierre Menard. It begins with a brief introduction and a listing of all of Menard's work.

</p><p>Borges's "review" describes this 20th-century French writer who has made an effort to go further than mere "translation" of Don Quixote, but to immerse himself so thoroughly as to be able to actually "re-create" it, line for line, in the original 17th century Spanish. Thus, "Pierre Menard" is always used to raise questions and discussion about the nature of accurate translation or, in this case, the <a href="Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">hermeneutics</a> of cryptomnesia.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cases">Cases</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nietzsche">Nietzsche</h3></div>

<p>Jung gives the following example in <i><a href="Man_and_His_Symbols" title="Man and His Symbols">Man and His Symbols</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-jung_nietzsche_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jung_nietzsche-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a>'s book <i><a href="Thus_Spoke_Zarathustra" title="Thus Spoke Zarathustra">Thus Spoke Zarathustra</a></i> includes an almost word for word account of an incident also included in a book published about 1835, half a century before Nietzsche wrote. This is considered to be neither purposeful plagiarism nor pure coincidence: Nietzsche's sister confirmed that he had indeed read the original account when he was younger, likely sometime between ages 12 and 15; Nietzsche's youthful intellectual capabilities, his later cognitive degeneration, and his accompanying psychological deterioration (specifically, his increasing <a href="Grandiosity" title="Grandiosity">grandiosity</a> as manifested in his later behavior and writings) together strengthen the likelihood that he happened to commit the passage to memory upon initially reading it and later, after having lost his memory of encountering it, assumed that his own mind had created it.<sup id="cite_ref-nietzsche_on_gender_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nietzsche_on_gender-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Byron">Byron</h3></div>

<p>In some cases, the line between cryptomnesia and <a href="Zeitgeist" title="Zeitgeist">zeitgeist</a> (compare the concept of <a href="Multiple_discovery" title="Multiple discovery">multiple discovery</a> in science) may be somewhat hazy. Readers of <a href="Lord_Byron" title="Lord Byron">Lord Byron</a>'s <a href="Closet_drama" title="Closet drama">closet drama</a> <i><a href="Manfred_(drama)" title="Manfred (drama)">Manfred</a></i> noted a strong resemblance to <a href="Goethe" class="mw-redirect" title="Goethe">Goethe</a>'s <i><a href="Goethe's_Faust" title="Goethe's Faust">Faust</a></i>. In a review published in 1820, Goethe wrote, "Byron's tragedy <i>Manfred</i> was to me a wonderful phenomenon, and one that closely touched me. This singular intellectual poet has taken my Faustus to himself, and extracted from it the strangest nourishment for his hypochondriac humour. He has made use of the impelling principles in his own way, for his own purposes, so that no one of them remains the same; and it is particularly on this account that I cannot enough admire his genius."<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Byron was apparently thankful for the compliment; however, he claimed that he had

never read <i>Faustus</i>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="J.M._Barrie">J.M. Barrie</h3></div>

<p><a href="J._M._Barrie" title="J. M. Barrie">J. M. Barrie</a>, the creator of <a href="Peter_Pan" class="mw-disambig" title="Peter Pan">Peter Pan</a>, was aware of the occurrence of cryptomnesia. In <i><a href="Peter_and_Wendy" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter and Wendy">Peter and Wendy</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wendy sews Peter's shadow back on and this makes him very happy but he immediately thinks he has attached the shadow himself:

</p><p>"How clever I am," he crowed rapturously, "oh, the cleverness of me!"

</p><p>Peter exhibits a number of other clinically accurate peculiarities of memory suggesting that Barrie regarded Peter's behavior as a memory disorder rather than self-centredness.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Helen_Keller">Helen Keller</h3></div>

<p><a href="Helen_Keller" title="Helen Keller">Helen Keller</a> compromised her own and <a href="Anne_Sullivan" title="Anne Sullivan">her teacher</a>'s credibility with an incident of cryptomnesia which was misinterpreted as <a href="Plagiarism" title="Plagiarism">plagiarism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="The_Frost_King" title="The Frost King">The Frost King</a></i>, which Keller wrote out of buried memories of the fairy tale <i>The Frost Fairies</i> by Margaret Canby, read to her four years previously, left Keller a nervous wreck, and unable to write fiction for the rest of her life.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Robert_Louis_Stevenson">Robert Louis Stevenson</h3></div>

<p><a href="Robert_Louis_Stevenson" title="Robert Louis Stevenson">Robert Louis Stevenson</a> refers to an incident of cryptomnesia that took place during the writing of <i><a href="Treasure_Island" title="Treasure Island">Treasure Island</a></i>, and that he discovered to his embarrassment several years afterward:

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</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>... I am now upon a painful chapter. No doubt the parrot once belonged to <a href="Robinson_Crusoe" title="Robinson Crusoe">Robinson Crusoe</a>. No doubt the skeleton is conveyed from <a href="Edgar_Allan_Poe" title="Edgar Allan Poe">Poe</a>. I think little of these, they are trifles and details; and no man can hope to have a monopoly of skeletons or make a corner in talking birds. The stockade, I am told, is from <i><a href="Masterman_Ready%2C_or_the_Wreck_of_the_Pacific" title="Masterman Ready, or the Wreck of the Pacific">Masterman Ready</a></i>. It may be, I care not a jot. These useful writers had fulfilled the poet's saying: departing, they had left behind them Footprints on the <a href="Sands_of_time_(idiom)" title="Sands of time (idiom)">sands of time</a>, Footprints which perhaps another—and I was the other! It is my debt to <a href="Washington_Irving" title="Washington Irving">Washington Irving</a> that exercises my conscience, and justly so, for I believe plagiarism was rarely carried farther. I chanced to pick up the <i><a href="Tales_of_a_Traveller" title="Tales of a Traveller">Tales of a Traveller</a></i> some years ago with a view to an anthology of prose narrative, and the book flew up and struck me: Billy Bones, his chest, the company in the parlour, the whole inner spirit, and a good deal of the material detail of my first chapters—all were there, all were the property of Washington Irving. But I had no guess of it then as I sat writing by the fireside, in what seemed the spring-tides of a somewhat pedestrian inspiration; nor yet day by day, after lunch, as I read aloud my morning's work to the family. It seemed to me original <a href="Original_sin" title="Original sin">as sin</a>; it seemed to belong to me like my right eye ...<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jerusalem_of_Gold">Jerusalem of Gold</h3></div>

<p><i><a href="Jerusalem_of_Gold" title="Jerusalem of Gold">Jerusalem of Gold</a></i> (<span title="Hebrew-language text"><span lang="he" dir="rtl">ירושלים של זהב</span></span>) is a 1967 song by <a href="Naomi_Shemer" title="Naomi Shemer">Naomi Shemer</a>.

Some of the song's melody is based on a <a href="Basque_music" title="Basque music">Basque</a> lullaby, <i><a href="Pello_Joxepe" title="Pello Joxepe">Pello Joxepe</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> composed by Juan Francisco Petriarena 'Xenpelar' (1835–1869). Shemer heard a rendition by Spanish singer/songwriter <a href="Paco_Ib%C3%A1%C3%B1ez" title="Paco Ibáñez">Paco Ibáñez</a>, who visited Israel in 1962 and performed the song to a group that included her and Nehama Hendel. She later acknowledged hearing Hendel perform Pello Joxepe in the mid-1960s, and that she had unconsciously based some of the melody on the lullaby. Shemer felt very bad when she found that it was similar to <i>Pello Joxepe</i>, but when Ibáñez was asked how he felt about the issue, he replied he was "glad it helped in some way", and that he was not angry, nor did he perceive it as plagiarism.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Steven_Tyler">Steven Tyler</h3></div>

<p>In 1984, when <a href="Aerosmith" title="Aerosmith">Aerosmith</a> were recording <i>Done With Mirrors</i>, lead singer <a href="Steven_Tyler" title="Steven Tyler">Steven Tyler</a> heard the group's "You See Me Crying" on the radio and, not remembering that it was their own song, suggested that the group record a cover version, to which guitarist <a href="Joe_Perry_(musician)" title="Joe Perry (musician)">Joe Perry</a> replied, "That's us, fuckhead!".<sup id="cite_ref-AUI_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AUI-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="George_Harrison">George Harrison</h3></div>

<p>The precedent in United States <a href="Copyright" title="Copyright">copyright</a> law, since 1976, has been to treat alleged cryptomnesia no differently from deliberate plagiarism. The seminal case is <i>Bright Tunes Music v. <a href="Harrisongs" title="Harrisongs">Harrisongs</a> Music,</i><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where the publisher of "<a href="He's_So_Fine" title="He's So Fine">He's So Fine</a>," written and composed by <a href="Ronnie_Mack" title="Ronnie Mack">Ronald Mack</a>, demonstrated to the court that <a href="George_Harrison" title="George Harrison">George Harrison</a> borrowed substantial portions of his song "<a href="My_Sweet_Lord" title="My Sweet Lord">My Sweet Lord</a>" from "He's So Fine." The Court imposed damages despite a claim that the copying was subconscious. The ruling was upheld by the Second Circuit in <i>ABKCO Music v. Harrisongs Music,</i><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the case <i>Three Boys Music v. Michael Bolton,</i><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> upheld by the Ninth Circuit, affirmed the principle.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colleen_McCullough">Colleen McCullough</h3></div>

<p>In 1987, Australian author <a href="Colleen_McCullough" title="Colleen McCullough">Colleen McCullough</a> published a novella, <i><a href="The_Ladies_of_Missalonghi" title="The Ladies of Missalonghi">The Ladies of Missalonghi</a></i>. Critics alleged that she had plagiarised <i><a href="The_Blue_Castle" title="The Blue Castle">The Blue Castle</a></i>, a 1926 novel by <a href="L._M._Montgomery" class="mw-redirect" title="L. M. Montgomery">L. M. Montgomery</a>. McCullough acknowledged having read Montgomery's works in her youth, but attributed the similarities to subconscious recollection.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Umberto_Eco">Umberto Eco</h3></div>

<p>In <i>Interpretation and Overinterpretation</i>, <a href="Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Umberto Eco</a> describes the rediscovery of an antique book among his large collection, which was eerily similar to the pivotal object in his novel <i><a href="The_Name_of_the_Rose" title="The Name of the Rose">The Name of the Rose</a></i>.

</p>

<blockquote class="templatequote"><p>I had bought that book in my youth, skimmed through it, realized that it was exceptionally soiled, and put it somewhere and forgot it. But by a sort of internal camera I had photographed those pages, and for decades the image of those poisonous leaves lay in the most remote part of my soul, as in a grave, until the moment it emerged again (I do not know for what reason) and I believed I had invented it.<sup id="cite_ref-EcoCollini1992_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EcoCollini1992-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote>

<ul><li><a href="Age_regression_in_therapy" title="Age regression in therapy">Age regression in therapy</a> – Controversial therapy technique</li>

<li><a href="Anybody_Seen_My_Baby%3F" title="Anybody Seen My Baby?"><i>Anybody Seen My Baby?</i></a> – 1997 single by the Rolling Stones</li>

<li><a href="Automatic_writing" title="Automatic writing">Automatic writing</a> – Claimed psychic ability</li>

<li><a href="Bridey_Murphy" title="Bridey Murphy">Bridey Murphy</a> – Purported example of a recalled past life</li>

<li><a href="Confabulation" title="Confabulation">Confabulation</a> – Recall of fabricated, misinterpreted or distorted memories</li>

<li><a href="D%C3%A9j%C3%A0_vu" title="Déjà vu"><i>Déjà vu</i></a> – Psychological sensation</li>

<li><a href="False_memory" title="False memory">False memory</a> – Psychological occurrence</li>

<li><a href="Hindsight_bias" title="Hindsight bias">Hindsight bias</a> – Type of confirmation bias</li>

<li><a href="Jamais_vu" title="Jamais vu"><i>Jamais vu</i></a> – Phenomenon in psychology</li>

<li><a href="Joke_theft" title="Joke theft">Joke theft</a> – Repetition of other people's original jokes without credit</li>

<li><a href="Melancholy_Elephants" title="Melancholy Elephants"><i>Melancholy Elephants</i></a> – 1982 short story by Spider Robinson</li>

<li><a href="Minority_influence" title="Minority influence">Minority influence</a> – Form of social influence</li>

<li><a href="Misattribution_of_memory" title="Misattribution of memory">Misattribution of memory</a> – Misidentification during memory recall</li>

<li><a href="Misinformation_effect" title="Misinformation effect">Misinformation effect</a> – Effect of later events on a previous memory</li>

<li><a href="Past_life_regression" title="Past life regression">Past life regression</a> – Pseudoscientific claim that past memory can be restored from the unconscious mind through hypnosis</li>

<li><a href="Revelation" title="Revelation">Revelation</a> – Communication from a deity</li>

<li><a href="Sleeper_effect" title="Sleeper effect">Sleeper effect</a> – Psychological phenomenon</li>

<li><a href="Source_amnesia" title="Source amnesia">Source amnesia</a> – Remembering information but not its source</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Taylor, F..K. (1965).Cryptomnesia and plagiarism. British Journal of Psychiatry, 111, 1111–1118.</span>

</li>

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.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("./mw/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("./mw/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("./mw/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("./mw/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}

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</style><cite id="CITEREFBrian_Righi2008" class="citation book cs1">Brian Righi (2008). "Chapter 4: Talking Boards and Ghostly Goo". <i>Ghosts, Apparitions and Poltergeists</i>. Llewellyn Publications. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0738713632</bdi>. <q>An early example of this occurred in 1874 with he medium William Stanton Moses, who communicated with the spirits of two brothers who had recently died in India. Upon investigation, it was discovered that one week prior to the séance, their obituary had appeared in the newspaper. This was of some importance because Moses's communications with the two spirits contained nothing that wasn't already printed in the newspaper. When the spirits were pressed for further information, they were unable to provide any. Researchers concluded that Moses had seen the obituary, forgotten it, and then resurfaced the memory during the séance.</q></cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_Todd_Carroll2014" class="citation web cs1"><a href="Robert_Todd_Carroll" title="Robert Todd Carroll">Robert Todd Carroll</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://skepdic.com/cryptomn.html">"Cryptomnesia"</a>. <i><a href="The_Skeptic's_Dictionary" title="The Skeptic's Dictionary">The Skeptic's Dictionary</a></i>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFThéodore_Flournoy1901" class="citation book cs1">Théodore Flournoy (1901). <i>From India to the Planet Mars: A Case of Multiple Personality with Imaginary Languages</i> – via answers.com/topic/cryptomnesia-psychoanalysis.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFJung1902" class="citation book cs1">Jung, Carl Gustav (1902). "On the psychology and pathology of so-called occult phenomena". <i>Coll. works</i>. Vol. 1. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFJung1902" class="citation book cs1">Jung, Carl Gustav (1902). "Cryptomnesia". <i>Coll. works</i>. Vol. 1. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul – via United States <a href="Bollingen_Foundation" title="Bollingen Foundation">Bollingen Foundation</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFFreud1920" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Freud, Sigmund (1920). <i>A note on the prehistory of the technique of analysis</i>. Vol. SE 18. pp. <span class="nowrap">263–</span>265.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFFreud1923" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Freud, Sigmund (1923). <i>Josef Popper-Lynkeus and the theory of dreams</i>. Vol. SE 19. pp. <span class="nowrap">259–</span>263.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLacan1988" class="citation book cs1">Lacan, Jacques (1988). <i>The Seminar of Jacques Lacan</i>. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. p. 7. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-393-30709-3</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"[Pantaine] remembered with horror the time she had spent in hospital and blamed Lacan for never having done anything to get her out of the asylum, for never having helped her or listened to her properly. In her opinion, he had stolen her life story and turned it into a thesis. When he became famous she resented it, and feelings of persecution again rose up strongly ίη her. She never forgave Lacan for not having given her back her manuscripts. After Lacan's death Ι asked Jacques-Alain Miller [Lacan's protégé and son-in-law] to look for them. Ι knew how much Marguerite's son wanted to have them back, though he didn't want to ask for them himself. But Ι never received any answer." <cite id="CITEREFRoudinesco1997" class="citation book cs1">Roudinesco, Elizabeth (1997). <i>Jacques Lacan</i>. New York: Columbia Univ. Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-231-10146-5</bdi>.</cite> (Cryptomnesia occurs when a forgotten memory returns without its being recognized as such by the subject, who believes it is something new and original - see <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nosubject.com/Lamella">"Lamella"</a>. <i>No Subject</i>. 26 May 2019.</cite>)</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brown, A. S., & Murphy, D. R. (1989). Cryptomnesia: Delineating inadvertent plagiarism. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 15, 432–442.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marsh, R. L., & Bower, G. H. (1993). Eliciting cryptomnesia: Unconscious plagiarism in a puzzle task. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 19, 673–688.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marsh, R. L. & Landau, J. D. (1995). Item availability in cryptomnesia: Assessing its role in two paradigms of unconscious plagiarism. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 21, 1568–1582.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marsh, R. L. Landau, J. D. Hicks, J. L. (1997). Contributions of inadequate source monitoring to unconscious plagiarism during idea generation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 23, 886–897.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Macrae, C.N., Bodenhasen, G. V. & Calvini, G. (1999). Contexts of cryptomnesia: May the source be with you. Social Cognition, 17, 273–297.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bjp.rcpsych.org/cgi/content/abstract/111/480/1111">"Cryptomnesia and Plagiarism — TAYLOR 111 (480): 1111 – The British Journal of Psychiatry"</a>. bjp.rcpsych.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-03-11</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-jung_nietzsche-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-jung_nietzsche_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131203020741/http://shellofman.com/post/8962298822/cryptomnesia-occurs-when-a-forgotten-memory">"Cryptomnesia"</a>. Shell of Man. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://shellofman.com/post/8962298822/cryptomnesia-occurs-when-a-forgotten-memory">the original</a> on 3 December 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 November</span> 2013</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-nietzsche_on_gender-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nietzsche_on_gender_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFOppel2005" class="citation book cs1">Oppel, Frances (2005). <i>Nietzsche On Gender</i>. University of Virginia Press. p. 204. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-8139-2320-4</bdi>. <q>The book of adventure stories as "source" was discovered by Carl Jung, who describes his find, and his subsequent belief that Nietzsche had "crpytomnesia," the concealed recollection of a textual memory, to his seminar of fellow depth psychologists who gathered once a week between 1934 and 1939 to analyze <i>Thus Spoke Zarathustra</i>. The piece of text "secretly crept up and reproduced itself" in "Of Great Events" (Z 2). Jung recognized the story about seamen stopping on an island to hunt rabbits, having read it in his grandfather's library. He wrote Elisabeth Forster-Nietzsche, who confirmed that she and Nietzsche had read the same book in their grandfather's library, when Nietzsche was eleven. This, Jung informed his Zarathustra seminar, "shows how the unconscious layers of the mind work." He added, "the absolute parallel is of course formed by the rabbits" (1218).</q></cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Reprinted in <i>Lord Byron: The Critical Heritage</i> by Andrew Rutherford <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Q2xuKwGa1jYC&dq=goethe+manfred&pg=PA109">[1]</a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBarrie1911" class="citation book cs1">Barrie, J. M. (1911). <i>Peter and Wendy</i>. Hodder and Stoughton.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRidley2016" class="citation book cs1">Ridley, Rosalind (2016). <i>Peter Pan and the Mind of J. M. Barrie</i>. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4438-9107-3</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jonathan Bailey. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.plagiarismtoday.com/2015/02/10/5-great-people-who-plagiarized/">5 Great People Who Plagiarized</a>". <i>Plagiarism Today</i>, February 10, 2015.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFFoer2006" class="citation web cs1">Foer, Joshua (27 April 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/science/2006/04/kaavya_syndrome.single.html">"No one has a photographic memory"</a>. <i>Slate</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 March</span> 2014</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFStevenson,_Robert_Louis1919" class="citation book cs1">Stevenson, Robert Louis (1919). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.215613/page/n129/mode/2up">"My First Book: "Treasure Island""</a>. <i>Essays In The Art Of Writing</i>. London: Chatto & Windus. pp. 120, 121.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paco Ibáñez: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ttuRcl1dK1M">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ttuRcl1dK1M</a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFIdit_AvrahamiNurit_Wurgaft2005" class="citation news cs1">Idit Avrahami; Nurit Wurgaft (6 May 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.haaretz.com/news/naomi-shemer-had-no-reason-to-feel-bad-says-basque-singer-1.157926">"Naomi Shemer had no reason to feel bad, says Basque singer"</a>. <i>Haaretz</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 April</span> 2014</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-AUI-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AUI_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBienstock2011" class="citation book cs1">Bienstock, Richard (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X2Opr3N1X4YC&pg=PA119"><i>Aerosmith: The Ultimate Illustrated History of the Boston Bad Boys</i></a>. <a href="Voyageur_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Voyageur Press">Voyageur Press</a>. p. 119. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-7603-4106-3</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">420 F. Supp. 177 (S.D.N.Y. 1976), <i>available at</i> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090326082447/http://cip.law.ucla.edu/cases/case_brightharrisongs.html">"Referenced Case"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cip.law.ucla.edu/cases/case_brightharrisongs.html">the original</a> on 2009-03-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-03-22</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">722 F.2d 988, 221 U.S.P.Q. 490, <i>available at</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://digital-law-online.info/cases/221PQ490.htm">http://digital-law-online.info/cases/221PQ490.htm</a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181124174522/http://mcir.usc.edu/cases/2000-2009/Pages/threeboysbolton.html">"Three Boys Music v. Michael Bolton 212 F.3d 477 (9th Cir.2000)"</a>. <i>Music Copyright Infringement Source</i>. USC Gould School of Law. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mcir.usc.edu/cases/2000-2009/Pages/threeboysbolton.html">the original</a> on 24 November 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 May</span> 2017</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMaunder2015" class="citation news cs1">Maunder, Patricia (30 January 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160819182640/http://www.smh.com.au/comment/obituaries/outspoken-writer-colleen-mccullough-praised-by-all-except-literary-establishment-20150130-131wf9.html">"Outspoken writer Colleen McCullough praised by all except literary establishment"</a>. <i><a href="Sydney_Morning_Herald" class="mw-redirect" title="Sydney Morning Herald">Sydney Morning Herald</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.smh.com.au/comment/obituaries/outspoken-writer-colleen-mccullough-praised-by-all-except-literary-establishment-20150130-131wf9.html">the original</a> on 19 August 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 September</span> 2016</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-EcoCollini1992-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-EcoCollini1992_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFUmberto_EcoStefan_ColliniRichard_RortyJonathan_Culler1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Umberto Eco</a>; Stefan Collini; Richard Rorty; Jonathan Culler; Christine Brooke-Rose (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wbhROmD3guQC"><i>Interpretation and overinterpretation</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 88. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-521-42554-4</bdi><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 August</span> 2011</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/cryptomnesia" class="extiw external" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/cryptomnesia">cryptomnesia</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div>

</div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://skepdic.com/cryptomn.html">Cryptomnesia</a> - <a href="The_Skeptic's_Dictionary" title="The Skeptic's Dictionary">The Skeptic's Dictionary</a></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Human_memory558" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Human_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Human memory">Human memory</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basic concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Encoding_(memory)" title="Encoding (memory)">Encoding</a></li>

<li><a href="Storage_(memory)" title="Storage (memory)">Storage</a></li>

<li><a href="Recall_(memory)" title="Recall (memory)">Recall</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Attention" title="Attention">Attention</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_consolidation" title="Memory consolidation">Consolidation</a></li>

<li><a href="Neuroanatomy_of_memory" title="Neuroanatomy of memory">Neuroanatomy</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Sensory_memory" title="Sensory memory">Sensory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Echoic_memory" title="Echoic memory">Echoic</a></li>

<li><a href="Eidetic_memory" title="Eidetic memory">Eidetic</a></li>

<li><a href="Eyewitness_memory" title="Eyewitness memory">Eyewitness</a></li>

<li><a href="Haptic_memory" title="Haptic memory">Haptic</a></li>

<li><a href="Iconic_memory" title="Iconic memory">Iconic</a></li>

<li><a href="Motor_learning" title="Motor learning">Motor learning</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_memory" title="Visual memory">Visual</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Short-term_memory" title="Short-term memory">Short-term</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>"<a href="The_Magical_Number_Seven%2C_Plus_or_Minus_Two" title="The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two">The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two</a>"</li>

<li><a href="Working_memory" title="Working memory">Working memory</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Long-term_memory" title="Long-term memory">Long-term</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Active_recall" class="mw-redirect" title="Active recall">Active recall</a></li>

<li><a href="Autobiographical_memory" title="Autobiographical memory">Autobiographical</a></li>

<li><a href="Explicit_memory" title="Explicit memory">Explicit</a>

<ul><li><a href="Explicit_memory" title="Explicit memory">Declarative</a></li>

<li><a href="Episodic_memory" title="Episodic memory">Episodic</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_memory" title="Semantic memory">Semantic</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Flashbulb_memory" title="Flashbulb memory">Flashbulb</a></li>

<li><a href="Hyperthymesia" title="Hyperthymesia">Hyperthymesia</a></li>

<li><a href="Implicit_memory" title="Implicit memory">Implicit</a></li>

<li><a href="Meaningful_learning" title="Meaningful learning">Meaningful learning</a></li>

<li><a href="Personal-event_memory" title="Personal-event memory">Personal-event</a></li>

<li><a href="Procedural_memory" title="Procedural memory">Procedural</a></li>

<li><a href="Rote_learning" title="Rote learning">Rote learning</a></li>

<li><a href="Selective_retention" title="Selective retention">Selective retention</a></li>

<li><a href="Tip_of_the_tongue" title="Tip of the tongue">Tip of the tongue</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Forgetting" title="Forgetting">Forgetting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Amnesia" title="Amnesia">Amnesia</a>

<ul><li><a href="Anterograde_amnesia" title="Anterograde amnesia">anterograde</a></li>

<li><a href="Childhood_amnesia" title="Childhood amnesia">childhood</a></li>

<li><a href="Posthypnotic_amnesia" title="Posthypnotic amnesia">post-hypnotic</a></li>

<li><a href="Post-traumatic_amnesia" title="Post-traumatic amnesia">post-traumatic</a></li>

<li><a href="Dissociative_amnesia" title="Dissociative amnesia">dissociative (psychogenic)</a></li>

<li><a href="Retrograde_amnesia" title="Retrograde amnesia">retrograde</a></li>

<li><a href="Selective_amnesia" title="Selective amnesia">selective</a></li>

<li><a href="Transient_global_amnesia" title="Transient global amnesia">transient global</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Decay_theory" title="Decay theory">Decay theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Forgetting_curve" title="Forgetting curve">Forgetting curve</a></li>

<li><a href="Interference_theory" title="Interference theory">Interference theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_erasure" title="Memory erasure">Memory erasure</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_inhibition" title="Memory inhibition">Memory inhibition</a></li>

<li><a href="Motivated_forgetting" title="Motivated forgetting">Motivated forgetting</a>

<ul><li><a href="Experiential_avoidance" title="Experiential avoidance">avoidance</a></li>

<li><a href="Repression_(psychoanalysis)" title="Repression (psychoanalysis)">repression</a></li>

<li><a href="Thought_suppression" title="Thought suppression">suppression</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Repressed_memory" title="Repressed memory">Repressed memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Retrieval-induced_forgetting" title="Retrieval-induced forgetting">Retrieval-induced forgetting</a></li>

<li><a href="Weapon_focus" title="Weapon focus">Weapon focus</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Memory_error" title="Memory error">Memory errors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Confabulation" title="Confabulation">Confabulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Hindsight_bias" title="Hindsight bias">Hindsight bias</a></li>

<li><a href="Imagination_inflation" title="Imagination inflation">Imagination inflation</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_memory_biases" class="mw-redirect" title="List of memory biases">Memory biases</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_conformity" title="Memory conformity">Memory conformity</a></li>

<li><a href="Misattribution_of_memory" title="Misattribution of memory">Misattribution of memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Misinformation_effect" title="Misinformation effect">Misinformation effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Source-monitoring_error" title="Source-monitoring error">Source-monitoring error</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="False_memory" title="False memory">False memory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Deese%E2%80%93Roediger%E2%80%93McDermott_paradigm" title="Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm">Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm</a></li>

<li><a href="False_memory_syndrome" title="False memory syndrome">False memory syndrome</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_implantation" title="Memory implantation">Memory implantation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Lost_in_the_mall_technique" title="Lost in the mall technique">Lost in the mall technique</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Recovered-memory_therapy" title="Recovered-memory therapy">Recovered-memory therapy</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Methods_used_to_study_memory" title="Methods used to study memory">Research methods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Exceptional_memory" title="Exceptional memory">Exceptional memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Indirect_tests_of_memory" title="Indirect tests of memory">Indirect tests of memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_disorder" title="Memory disorder">Memory disorder</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Collective_memory" title="Collective memory">Collective memory</a>

<ul><li><a href="Politics_of_memory" title="Politics of memory">Politics of memory</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_memory" title="Cultural memory">Cultural memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_and_social_interactions" title="Memory and social interactions">Memory and social interactions</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_conformity" title="Memory conformity">Memory conformity</a></li>

<li><a href="Transactive_memory" title="Transactive memory">Transactive memory</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Memory_and_aging" title="Memory and aging">Aging</a></li>

<li><a href="Art_of_memory" title="Art of memory">Art of memory</a>

<ul><li><a href="Chunking_(psychology)" title="Chunking (psychology)">chunking</a></li>

<li><a href="Elaborative_encoding" title="Elaborative encoding">encoding</a></li>

<li><a href="Memorization" title="Memorization">memorization</a></li>

<li><a href="Mnemonic" title="Mnemonic">mnemonic</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_rehearsal" title="Memory rehearsal">rehearsal</a></li>

<li><a href="Spaced_repetition" title="Spaced repetition">repetition</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Effects_of_alcohol_on_memory" title="Effects of alcohol on memory">Effects of alcohol</a></li>

<li><a href="Neurobiological_effects_of_physical_exercise#Memory" title="Neurobiological effects of physical exercise">Effects of exercise</a></li>

<li><a href="Effects_of_stress_on_memory" title="Effects of stress on memory">Effects of stress</a></li>

<li><a href="Emotion_and_memory" title="Emotion and memory">Emotion</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_improvement" title="Memory improvement">Memory improvement</a></li>

<li><a href="Nutrition_and_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutrition and memory">Nutrition</a></li>

<li><a href="Sleep_and_memory" title="Sleep and memory">Sleep</a></li>

<li><a href="Memory_and_trauma" title="Memory and trauma">Trauma</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Memory_sport" title="Memory sport">Memory sport</a>

<ul><li><a href="World_Memory_Championships" title="World Memory Championships">World Memory Championships</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Shas_Pollak" title="Shas Pollak">Shas Pollak</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Absent-mindedness" title="Absent-mindedness">Absent-mindedness</a></li>

<li><a href="Atkinson%E2%80%93Shiffrin_memory_model" title="Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model">Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model</a></li>

<li><a href="Context-dependent_memory" title="Context-dependent memory">Context-dependent</a> and <a href="State-dependent_memory" title="State-dependent memory">state-dependent</a> memory</li>

<li><a href="Childhood_memory" title="Childhood memory">Childhood memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Exosomatic_memory" title="Exosomatic memory">Exosomatic memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Free_recall" title="Free recall">Free recall</a></li>

<li><a href="Intermediate-term_memory" title="Intermediate-term memory">Intermediate-term memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Involuntary_memory" title="Involuntary memory">Involuntary memory</a>

<ul><li><a href="Flashback_(psychology)" title="Flashback (psychology)">flashbacks</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Levels_of_Processing_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Levels of Processing model">Levels of Processing model</a></li>

<li><a href="Metamemory" title="Metamemory">Metamemory</a></li>

<li><a href="Muscle_memory" title="Muscle memory">Muscle memory</a></li>

<li><a href="Priming_(psychology)" title="Priming (psychology)">Priming</a>

<ul><li><a href="Intertrial_priming" title="Intertrial priming">intertrial</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Prospective_memory" title="Prospective memory">Prospective</a> and <a href="Retrospective_memory" title="Retrospective memory">retrospective</a> memory</li>

<li><i><a href="The_Seven_Sins_of_Memory" title="The Seven Sins of Memory">The Seven Sins of Memory</a></i></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Researchers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Richard_C._Atkinson" title="Richard C. Atkinson">Richard C. Atkinson</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_A._Bjork" title="Robert A. Bjork">Robert A. Bjork</a></li>

<li><a href="Stephen_J._Ceci" title="Stephen J. Ceci">Stephen J. Ceci</a></li>

<li><a href="Susan_Clancy" title="Susan Clancy">Susan Clancy</a></li>

<li><a href="Hermann_Ebbinghaus" title="Hermann Ebbinghaus">Hermann Ebbinghaus</a></li>

<li><a href="Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a></li>

<li><a href="Patricia_Goldman-Rakic" title="Patricia Goldman-Rakic">Patricia Goldman-Rakic</a></li>

<li><a href="Ivan_Izquierdo" title="Ivan Izquierdo">Ivan Izquierdo</a></li>

<li><a href="Marcia_K._Johnson" title="Marcia K. Johnson">Marcia K. Johnson</a></li>

<li><a href="Eric_Kandel" title="Eric Kandel">Eric Kandel</a></li>

<li><a href="Elizabeth_Loftus" title="Elizabeth Loftus">Elizabeth Loftus</a></li>

<li><a href="Geoffrey_Loftus" title="Geoffrey Loftus">Geoffrey Loftus</a></li>

<li><a href="James_McGaugh" title="James McGaugh">James McGaugh</a></li>

<li><a href="Eleanor_Maguire" title="Eleanor Maguire">Eleanor Maguire</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Armitage_Miller" title="George Armitage Miller">George Armitage Miller</a></li>

<li><a href="Brenda_Milner" title="Brenda Milner">Brenda Milner</a></li>

<li><a href="Lynn_Nadel" title="Lynn Nadel">Lynn Nadel</a></li>

<li><a href="Henry_L._Roediger_III" title="Henry L. Roediger III">Henry L. Roediger III</a></li>

<li><a href="Daniel_Schacter" title="Daniel Schacter">Daniel Schacter</a></li>

<li><a href="Richard_Shiffrin" title="Richard Shiffrin">Richard Shiffrin</a></li>

<li><a href="Arthur_P._Shimamura" title="Arthur P. Shimamura">Arthur P. Shimamura</a></li>

<li><a href="Larry_Squire" title="Larry Squire">Larry Squire</a></li>

<li><a href="Susumu_Tonegawa" title="Susumu Tonegawa">Susumu Tonegawa</a></li>

<li><a href="Anne_Treisman" title="Anne Treisman">Anne Treisman</a></li>

<li><a href="Endel_Tulving" title="Endel Tulving">Endel Tulving</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Stickgold" title="Robert Stickgold">Robert Stickgold</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Patients</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Clive_Wearing" title="Clive Wearing">Clive Wearing</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Jonathan_Hancock" title="Jonathan Hancock">Jonathan Hancock</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_R._McHugh" title="Paul R. McHugh">Paul R. McHugh</a></li>

<li><a href="Dominic_O'Brien" title="Dominic O'Brien">Dominic O'Brien</a></li>

<li><a href="Ben_Pridmore" title="Ben Pridmore">Ben Pridmore</a></li>

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